Inflaming public debate: a methodology to determine origin and characteristics of hate speech about sexual and gender diversity on Twitter

Autores/as

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.ene.06

Palabras clave:

Hate speech, Misogyny, Social media, Social networks, Social networks analysis, Transphobia, Feminism, LGBTIQ , Gender diversity, Sexual diversity, Transgender, Transsexuality, Twitter

Resumen

This article is focused on the reproduction of ideologically charged messages whose origins or interests remain hidden from public opinion. There is an urgent need for transparency regarding polarised debates that deform, impede or distort the critical approach that any society should be able to construct concerning issues of great social interest, especially on social media platforms and networks. Research has shown that hostility has colonised digital communication through misogynist, homophobic, transphobic or xenophobic messages, among others, and that, for the most part, these are not spontaneous or individual interactions. In the virtual space, there are forces that, although invisible outside it, construct narratives, generate disinformation and feed generally regressive ideological approaches. Thus, in the name of transparency and social justice, there is an urgent need to investigate these types of messages, as well as their possible destabilising interests at a time of special presence and reputation of discourses such as the feminist one, which is currently experiencing a significant reactionary response. This paper investigates the origin and characteristics of the conversation on the social network Twitter concerning gender and sexual identities. To this end, we studied a significant sample of tweets (>1 million) related to women´s rights, the LGBTIQ+ collective and trans people, for a full year. Computerised methodologies by means of machine learning techniques, natural language processing (NLP), determination of bots, geolocation, and the application of network theories were used to carry out the study. The results include the highly interrelated presence of groups without clear referents, as well as the existence of what appear to be coordinated networks aimed at causing harm and provoking confrontation.

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.

Citas

Acosta-Quiroz, Johana; Iglesias-Osores, Sebastián (2020). "Covid-19: desinformación en redes sociales". Revista cuerpo médico HNAA, v. 13, n. 2, pp. 217-218. http://doi.org/10.35434/rcmhnaaa.2020.132.678

Alabao, Nuria (2020). "El fantasma de la teorí­a queer sobrevuela el feminismo". En: VV. AA. (eds.). Transfeminismo o barbarie. Málaga: Kaótica Libros, pp. 129-152. ISBN: 978 84 12212921

Alabao, Nuria (2021). "Las guerras de género: La extrema derecha contra el feminismo". En: Ramos, Miquel (ed.). De los neocon a los neonazis: La derecha radical en el estado español. Madrid: Fundación Rosa Luxemburgo, pp. 397-423. https://www.rosalux.eu/es/article/1954.las-guerras-de-g%C3%A9nero.html

Alonso-González, Marián (2019). "Fake news: disinformation in the information society". Ámbitos. Revista internacional de comunicación, v. 45, pp. 29-52. https://doi.org/10.12795/Ambitos.2019.i45.03

Amores, Javier J.; Blanco-Herrero, David; Sánchez-Holgado, Patricia; Frí­as-Vázquez, Maximiliano (2021). "Detectando el odio ideológico en Twitter. Desarrollo y evaluación de. un detector de discurso de odio por ideologí­a polí­tica en tuits en español". Cuadernos.info, v. 49, pp. 98-124. https://doi.org/10.7764/cdi.49.27817

Arce-Garcí­a, Sergio; Said-Hung, Elí­as; Mottareale-Calvanese, Darí­a (2022). "Astroturfing as a strategy for manipulating public opinion on Twitter during the pandemic in Spain". Profesional de la información, v. 31, n. 3, e310310. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2022.may.10

Arcila-Calderón, Carlos; Amores, Javier J.; Sánchez-Holgado, Patricia; Blanco-Herrero, David (2021). "Using shallow and deep learning to automatically detect hate motivated by gender and sexual orientation on Twitter in Spanish". Multimodal technologies and interaction, v. 5, n. 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti5100063

Arcila-Calderón, Carlos; Blanco-Herrero, David; Valdez-Apolo, Marí­a-Belén (2020). "Rechazo y discurso de odio en Twitter: análisis de contenido de los tuits sobre migrantes y refugiados en español". Reis, v. 172, pp. 21-40. https://doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.172.21

Arcila-Calderón, Carlos; Ortega-Mohedano, Félix; Jiménez-Amores, Javier; Trullenque, Sofí­a (2017). "Análisis supervisado de sentimientos polí­ticos en español: clasificación en tiempo real de tweets basada en aprendizaje automático". El profesional de la información, v. 26, n. 5, pp. 973-982. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2017.sep.18

Ayuso, Olga (2020). "No queremos tu carnet". En: VV. AA. Transfeminismo o barbarie, pp. 217-224. Málaga: Kaótica Libros. ISBN: 978 84 12212921

Barabási, Albert-László (2016). Network science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978 1 1070762 6 6 https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2012.0375

Bassignana, Elisa; Basile, Valerio; Patti, Viviana (2018). "Hurtlex: A multilingual lexicon of words to hurt". In: 5th Italian conference on computational linguistics. CEUR workshop proceedings, v. 2253. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.aaccademia.3085

Berners-Lee, Tim (2021). "Why the web needs to work for women and girls". World Wide Web Foundation. https://webfoundation.org/our-work

Blondel, Vicent; Guillaume, Jean-Loup; Lambiotte, Renaud; Lefebvre, Etienne (2008). "Fast unfolding of communities in large networks". Journal of statistical mechanics: theory and experiment, v. 10. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.0803.0476

Bot Ruso (2022). Confesiones de un bot ruso. Barcelona: Debate. ISBN: 978 84 18619151

Bradshaw, Samantha; Bailey, Hannah; Howard, Philip N. (2021). Industrialized disinformation. 2020 global inventory of organized social media manipulation. The computational propaganda project at Oxford Internet Institute. https://demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/127/2021/01/CyberTroop-Report-2020-v.2.pdf

Breiman, Leo; Friedman, Jerome H.; Olshen, Richard A.; Stone, Charles J. (1984). Classification and regression trees. Belmont: Wadsworth. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315139470

Cabo-Isasi, Alex; Garcí­a-Juanatey, Ana (2016). El discurso de odio en las redes sociales: un estado de la cuestión. Barcelona: Ajuntament de Barcelona.

Carratalá, Adolfo (2021). "Invertir la vulnerabilidad: el discurso en Twitter de organizaciones neocón y Vox contra las personas LGBTI". Quaderns de filologí­a: estudis lingí¼í­stics, v. XXVI, pp. 75-94. https://doi.org/10.7203/QF.26.21979

Casero-Ripollés, Andreu (2016). "Estrategias y prácticas comunicativas del activismo polí­tico en las redes sociales en España". Historia y comunicación social, v. 20, n. 2, pp. 533-548. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_hics.2015.v20.n2.51399

Chen, Jundong; Li, He; Wu, Zeju; Hossain, Md-Shafaeat (2020). "Analyzing the sentiment correlation between regular tweets and retweets". 2017 IEEE 16th International symposium on network computing and applications (NCA). https://doi.org/10.1109/NCA.2017.8171354

Crenshaw, Kimberlé (1989). "Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine". Feminist theory and antiracist politics, v. 140, pp. 139-167.

Davis, Mark (2019). "A new, online culture war? The communication world at Breitbart.com". Communication research and practice, v. 5, n. 3, pp. 241-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/22041451.2018.1558790

Dixon, Kitsy (2014). "Feminist online identity: analyzing the presence of hashtag feminism". Journal of arts and humanities, v. 3, n. 7, pp. 34-40. https://doi.org/10.18533/journal.v3i7.509

Duval, Elizabeth (2021). Después de lo trans. Valencia: La Caja Books. ISBN: 978 84 17496524.

EFE (2020). "J.K. Rowling acusada de transfobia en Twitter por comentario sobre menstruación". La vanguardia, 7 de junio. https://www.lavanguardia.com/gente/20200607/481654614948/jk-rowling-transfobia-twitter-menstruacion.html

Ekman, Paul (2003). "Darwin, deception, and facial expression". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, v. 1000, n. 1, pp. 205-221. http://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1280.010

Errasti, José; Pérez-Álvarez, Marino (2022). Nadie nace en un cuerpo equivocado. Barcelona: Deusto. ISBN: 978 84 23433322.

Etura-Hernández, Dunia; Gutiérrez-Sanz, Ví­ctor; Martí­n-Jiménez, Virginia (2017). "La cultura mediática y el discurso posmachista: análisis retórico de Facebook ante la violencia de género". Investigaciones feministas, v. 8, n. 2, pp. 369-384. http://doi.org/10.5209/INFE.55034

Fitzgerald, Jonathan D. (2017). "Sentiment analysis of (you guessed it!) Donald Trump´s tweets". Storybench. Northeastern University School of Journalism. https://www.storybench.org/sentiment-analysis-of-you-guessed-it-donald-trumps-tweets

Fraser, Nancy (1990). "Rethinking the public sphere: a contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy". Social text, v. 25/26, pp. 56-80. https://doi.org/10.2307/466240

Frischlich, Lena (2022). ""˜Resistance!´: collective action cues in conspiracy theory-endorsing Facebook groups. Impact of social media on social cohesion". Media and communication, v. 10, n. 2, pp. 130-143. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i2.5182

Gil-Pascual, Juan-Antonio (2021). Minerí­a de textos con R. Madrid: Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. ISBN: 978 84 362 7711 1

Granovetter, Mark S. (1973). "The strength of weak ties". American journal of sociology, v. 78, pp. 1360-1380. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2776392

Gutiérrez-Almazor, Miren; Pando-Canteli, Marí­a-Jesús; Congosto, Mariluz (2020). "New approaches to the propagation of the antifeminist backlash on Twitter". Investigaciones feministas, v. 11, n. 2, pp. 221-237. https://doi.org/10.5209/infe.66089

Hu, Yifan (2006). "Efficient, high-quality force-directed graph drawing". The mathematica journal, v. 10, n. 1, pp. 37-71. http://yifanhu.net/PUB/graph_draw.pdf

Jiang, Shaohai (2022). "Does social media promote or hinder health learning? The roles of media attention, information discussion, information elaboration, and information seeking experience". Mass communication and society. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2022.2090961

Jockers, Matthew (2017). "Syuzhet, extracts sentiment and sentiment-derived plot arcs from text". https://rdrr.io/cran/syuzhet

Kearney, Michael W. (2018). "Tweetbotornot: an R package for classifying Twitter accounts as bot or not". https://github.com/mkearney/tweetbotornot

Kearney, Michael W. (2019). "Rtweet: collecting and analyzing Twitter data". Journal of open source software, v. 4, n. 42, p. 1829. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01829

Keller, Franziska G.; Schoch, David; Stier, Sebastian; Yang, Junghwan (2020). "Political astroturfing on Twitter: how to coordinate a disinformation campaign". Political communication, v. 37, n. 2, pp. 256-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1661888

Lew, Zijian; Stohl, Cynthia (2022). "What makes people willing to comment on social media posts? The roles of interactivity and perceived contingency in online corporate social responsibility communication". Communication monographs. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2022.2032230

Llorca-Asensi, Elena; Fabregat-Cabrera, Marí­a-Elena; Ruiz-Callado, Raúl (2021). "Desinformación populista en redes sociales: la tuitosfera del juicio del Procés". Observatorio OBS, v. 15, n. 3, pp. 124-146. https://doi.org/10.15847/obsOBS15320211835

Maier, Daniel; Baden, Christian; Stoltenberg, Daniela; De-Vries-Kedem, Maya; Waldherr, Annie (2022). "Machine translation vs. multilingual dictionaries assessing two strategies for the topic modeling of multilingual text collections". Communication methods and measures, v. 16, n. 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2021.1955845

Mangold, Frank; Scharkow, Michael (2022). "Metrics of news audience polarization: same or different?". Communication methods and measures, v. 16, n. 2. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2022.2085249

Martini, Franziska; Samula, Paul; Keller, Tobias R.; Klinger, Ulrike (2021). "Bot, or not? Comparing three methods for detecting social bots in five political discourses". Big data & society, v. 8, n. 2. https://doi.org/10.1177/20539517211033566

Menéndez-Menéndez, Marí­a-Isabel; Amigot-Leache, Patricia; Iturbide-Rodrigo, Ruth (2021). "Narrativas sexistas y hostilidad en foros de prensa digital: análisis en diarios de ámbito local". Investigaciones feministas, v. 12, n. 1, pp. 5-17. https://doi.org/10.5209/infe.68665

Missé, Miquel (2018). A la conquista del cuerpo equivocado. Madrid: Egales. ISBN: 978 84 17319 36 6.

Missé, Miquel (2021). "No necesitamos aliados". En: Serra, Clara; Garaizábal, Cristina; Macaya, Laura. Alianzas rebeldes, pp. 147-157. Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra. ISBN: 978 84 18684111

Miyares, Alicia (2021). DistopiÌas patriarcales. AnaÌlisis feminista del "generismo queer". Madrid: Cátedra. ISBN: 978 84 376420 1 7

Mohammad, Saif (2016). "Sentiment analysis: detecting valence, emotions, and other affectual states from text". Emotion measurement, v. 2016, pp. 201-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100508-8.00009-6

Mohammad, Saif; Turney, Peter-David (2010). "Emotions evoked by common words and phrases: using mechanical turk to create an emotion lexicon". In: Inkpen, Diana; Strapparava, Carlo (eds.). Proceedings of the NAACL-HLT 2010 workshop on computational approaches to analysis and generation of emotion in text. Los Angeles: Association for Computational Linguistics, pp. 26-34. https://aclanthology.org/W10-02

Mohammad, Saif; Turney, Peter-David (2013). "Crowdsourcing a word-emotion association lexicon". Computational intelligence, v. 29, n. 3, pp. 436-465. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8640.2012.00460.x

MoravÄí­ková, Erika (2022). "Human downgrading. The concept of human degradation on social media". Communication today, v. 13, pp. 28-45.

Mulió, Leo (2020). "El debate que no deberí­a serlo". En: VV. AA. (eds.). Transfeminismo o barbarie. Málaga: Kaótica Libros, pp. 197-214.

Muller, Karsten; Schwarz, Carlo (2021). "Fanning the flames of hate: social media and hate crime". SSRN Electronic journal, v. 19, n. 4, pp. 2131-2167. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvaa045

Neubaum, German (2022). "´It´s going to be out there for a long time´: the influence of message persistence on users´ political opinion expression in social media". Communication research, v. 49, n. 3, pp. 426-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650221995314

Noblí­a, Marí­a-Valentina (2015). "Un pacto de mutua agresión: la negociación de la imagen y el rol de la audiencia en los diarios digitales". Textos en proceso, v. 1, pp. 16-49. https://doi.org/10.17710/tep.2015.1.1.2nob

Núñez-Puente, Sonia; Fernández-Romero, Diana (2019). "Posverdad y victimización en Twitter ante el caso de La Manada: propuesta de un marco analí­tico a partir del testimonio ético". Investigaciones feministas, v. 10, n. 2, pp. 385-398. https://doi.org/10.5209/infe.66501

Olveira-Araujo, Rubén (2022). "La transexualidad en los cibermedios españoles. Presencia, preeminencia y temas (2000-2020)". Profesional de la información, v. 31, n. 1, e310102. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2022.ene.02

Pariser, Eli (2011). The filter bubble. New York: The Penguin Press. ISBN: 978 1 59420 300 8

Pérez-Curiel, Concha; Rúas-Araújo, José; Rivas-de-Roca, Rubén (2022). "When politicians meet experts: disinformation on Twitter about Covid-19 vaccination". Media and communication, v. 10, n. 2, pp. 130-143. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v10i2.4955

Pérez-Zúñiga, Ricardo; Camacho-Castillo, Osvaldo; Arroyo-Cervantes, Gloria (2014). "Las redes sociales y el activismo". Paakat. Revista de tecnologí­a y sociedad, v. 4, n. 7. http://www.udgvirtual.udg.mx/paakat/index.php/paakat/article/view/226

Piñeiro-Otero, Teresa; Martí­nez-Rolán, Xabier (2021). "Say it to my face: analysing hate speech against women on Twitter". Profesional de la información, v. 30, n. 5, e300502. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2021.sep.02

Platero, Lucas (2017). "Prólogo". En: Stryker, Susan (eds.). Historia de lo trans. Madrid: Continta Me Tienes, pp. 7-15. ISBN: 978 84 947938 0 6

Platero, Lucas (2020). "Conocer nuestras genealogí­as". En: VV. AA. (eds.). Transfeminismo o barbarie. Málaga: Kaótica Libros, pp. 41-68. ISBN: 978 84 12212945

Plutchik, Robert (1980). "A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion". In: Plutchik, Robert; Kellerman, Henry. (eds.). Emotion. Theory, research, and experience: V. 1. Theories of emotion. New York: Academic Press, pp. 3-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-11313-X

Reguero, Patricia (2020). "Medio siglo de feminismo y transfobia". En: VV. AA. (eds.). Transfeminismo o barbarie. Málaga: Kaótica Libros, pp. 227-240. ISBN: 978 84 12212945

Ribera, Carles-Salom (2014). "Estrategia en redes sociales basada en la teorí­a de los ví­nculos débiles". Más poder local, v. 19, pp. 23-25. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=4753468

Rodrí­guez-Fernández, Leticia (2019). "Desinformación: retos profesionales para el sector de la comunicación". El profesional de la información, v. 28, n. 3, e280306. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2019.may.06

Rodrí­guez-Fernández, Leticia (2021). Propaganda digital. Comunicación en tiempos de desinformación. Barcelona: Editorial UOC. ISBN: 978 84 9180 792 6

Romero, Carmen (2020). "¿Quién teme al transfeminismo?". En: VV. AA. Transfeminismo o barbarie, pp. 17-38. Málaga: Kaótica Libros. ISBN: 978 84 12212945

Sánchez-Carballido, Juan-Ramón (2008). "Perspectivas de la información en Internet". Zer, v. 13, n. 25, pp. 61-81. https://ojs.ehu.eus/index.php/Zer/article/view/3574

Sánchez-Duarte, José-Manuel (2016). "La red como espacio para la militancia polí­tica". Comunicación y sociedad, v. 29, n. 3, pp. 33-47. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.29.3.33-47

Sauter, Disa A.; Eisner, Frank; Ekman, Paul; Scott, Sophie K. (2010). "Cross-cultural recognition of basic emotions through nonverbal emotional vocalizations: correction". PNAS. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, v. 107, n. 6, pp. 2408-2412. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0908239106

Serano, Julia (2020). Whipping girl. Madrid: Ménades. ISBN: 978 84 121285 4 3

Shane, Tommy; Willaert, Tom; Tuters, Marc (2022). "The rise of "˜gaslighting´: debates about desinformation on Twitter and 4chan, and the possibility of a "˜good echo chamber´". Popular communication, v. 20, n. 5, pp. 178-192. https://doi.org/10.1080/15405702.2022.2044042

Soto-Ivars, Juan (2021). "Prólogo". En: Shrier, Abigail (eds.). Un daño irreversible. Barcelona: Deusto, pp. 13-20. ISBN: 978 84 23432981

Stryker, Susan (2017). Historia de lo trans. Madrid: Continta Me Tienes. ISBN: 978 84 947938 0 6

Swati, Ubale; Pranali, Chilekar; Pragati, Sonkamble (2015). "Sentiment analysis of news articles using machine learning approach". International journal of advances in electronics and computer science, v. 2, n. 4, pp. 114-116. http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/12-127-1430132488114-116.pdf

Van-der-Veen, Han; Hiemstra, Djoerd; Van-den-Broek, Tijs; Ehrenhard, Michel; Need, Ariana (2015). "Determine the user country of a tweet". Social and information networks. https://arxiv.org/abs/1508.02483

Varela, Nuria (2019). Feminismo 4.0. La cuarta ola. Barcelona: Ediciones B. ISBN: 978 84 666644 3 1

Vidgen, Bertram (2019). "Tweeting islamophobia" [Doctoral thesis, University of Oxford]. British Library Ethos, e-theses online service. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.786187

Villar-Aguilés, Alí­cia; Pecourt-Gracia, Juan (2021). "Antifeminismo y troleo de género en Twitter. Estudio de la subcultura trol a través de #STOPfeminazis". Teknokultura, v. 18, n. 1, pp. 33-44. https://doi.org/10.5209/tekn.70225

Vite-Hernández, Yara; Cornelio-Landero, Rosa; Suárez-Ovando, Asbinia (2020). "Activismo y violencia de género en las redes sociales en la actualidad". Perfiles de las ciencias sociales, v. 8, n. 15, pp. 111-137. https://revistas.ujat.mx/index.php/perfiles/article/view/3903

Williams, Matthew (2021). The science of hate. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN: 978 0 571 35706 2

Wylie, Christopher (2020). Mindf*ck Cambridge Analytica. La trama para desestabilizar el mundo. Barcelona: Roca Editorial de Libros. ISBN: 978 84 18014 24 6

Publicado

2022-12-29

Cómo citar

Arce-Garcí­a, S., & Menéndez-Menéndez, M.-I. (2022). Inflaming public debate: a methodology to determine origin and characteristics of hate speech about sexual and gender diversity on Twitter. Profesional De La información, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.ene.06

Número

Sección

Artí­culos de investigación / Research articles